European Kingdoms

Luxemburg / Luxembourg

Luxembourg began as a stronghold known as Lucilinburhuc. Initially part of the Frankish empire and then the Middle Frankish kingdom of Lothar I, it passed to Lothar II in 855 as part of the kingdom of Lotharingia. This gradually broke up, with the Luxembourg region being inherited by the duchy of Lorraine (in the Lower Lorraine region). A town grew up around the stronghold (which today is Luxembourg Castle). The territory quickly grew in stature which was gained by Sigfried, count of Ardennes in 963. This formed a useful buffer against the Western Franks.

(Information by Peter Kessler.)

700

Bishop Willibrord of Utrecht in Frisia is given land by the mayor of the palace, Pepin II of Herstal, at Echternach, at which he founds a monastery to act as his new base. He is ultimately buried there, in the tenth century crypt of the church which bears his name. The territory is within the Frankish empire, but it ultimately forms part of Luxemburg.

962

With the accession of the Saxon king, Otto I, the power of the Germanic Roman empire is confirmed. Otto is quite vigorous in establishing new counties and border areas within and without the empire's borders. The county of Ardennes under Sigfried gains the stronghold of Lucilinburhuc, Arnulf I the Elder is restored in Flanders, and the March of Austria is formed (or confirmed) from territory already captured from Hungary (around 960).

Germany in AD 962 may have had its new emperor to govern the territories shown within the dark black line, but it was still a patchwork of competing interests and power bases, most notably in the five great stem duchies, many of which were attempting to expand their own territories outside the empire, creating the various march or border regions to the east and south (click or tap on map to view full sized)

At the same time, Saxony gains Hermann Billung as its duke, charged with maintaining the duchy's eastern borders and expanding them further to the east, alongside the recently-created North March. Perhaps as a reaction to this or as the culmination of a process which is already heading that way, the duchy of Poland is formed around the same time.

963 - 998

Count of Ardennes. Dau m HRE Henry II.

998 - 1026

Henry V, duke of Bavaria.

1024

With the death of Holy Roman Emperor Henry II, the empire is administered by his widow, Cunigunde of Luxemburg. She has long been politically active at Henry's side and now, with the assistance of her brothers, Dietrich and Heinrich, she manages the regency period for about two months until the vacancy on the throne is filled by Conrad the Salian. Cunigunde hands over the imperial jewels to Conrad as a symbol of her legitimacy in office before retiring to Kaufungen Abbey, which she had previously founded in Hesse.

1026 - 1047

Henry VII, duke of Bavaria.

1047 - 1059

1059

Upon the death of Giselbert, his son Conrad succeeds him as the first confirmed count of Luxemburg, taking it permanently out of the direct control of Lorraine's dukes.

The thick forest of the Ardennes formed part of the medieval county of Ardennes, with this region also gaining Luxembourg in 963, another county in the making

County of Luxemburg / Luxembourg
AD 1059 - 1353

The stronghold of Lucilinburhuc was obtained by the count of Ardennes in 963. A town had already grown up around the stronghold (today's Luxembourg Castle), The territory quickly grew in stature to become a full county under Conrad I, and a duchy in the fourteenth century.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from Neue Deutsche Biographie: Simon II [of Lorraine], Hans-Walter Herrmann (2010).)

1059 - 1086

Son of Giselbert. First count of Luxembourg.

1064

The margraviate of Baden is formed in eastern central Swabia during the general political collapse in Germany which dominates this century. The rebellion of Rudolf of Rheinfelden becomes known as the Great Saxon Revolt, with him being succeeded in his opposition against Emperor Henry IV by Berthold I of Rheinfelden, Hermann of Luxemburg, and Conrad of Franconia.

1086 - 1096

1096 - 1129

1129 - 1136

1136 - 1196

Grandson of Conrad I.

1196  - 1247

Countess of Luxemburg. Daughter.

1197 - 1214

Husband. Count of Bar (1190-1214).

1202

Having gained lands in Luxemburg as a result of his marriage to Ermesinde of Namur, Count Theobald I of Bar is now also granted the county of Vaudémont by Simon II, duke of Lorraine.

1208

Ferry II of Lorraine goes to war against his father-in-law, Theobald of Bar. He is defeated and captured and is imprisoned for seven months. In order to obtain his freedom he is forced to hand over Amance, Longwy, and Stenay, lands which he had gained thanks to his marriage to Agnes of Bar. Essentially, Theobald wins back his daughter's dowry.

1214 - ?

Second husband. Duke of Limberg.

1247 - 1281

Son.

1281 - 1288

1288 - 1310

HRE (1308-1313).

1310 - 1346

1320

On 20 January, all of Poland (except for Silesia, Polish areas of Pomerania, and Mazovia) is reunited as a single Polish kingdom with the coronation of Wladyslaw the Short. The coronation takes place with the support and cooperation of Pope John XXII at Avignon, who also needs to placate Jean of Luxembourg, known as 'the Blind', king of Bohemia and son of Holy Roman Emperor Henry VII. Jean (or John) has his own claims to Poland.

1346 - 1353

HRE Charles IV (1347-1378).

1365

Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV and Archduke Rudolph IV of Austria agree a contract of inheritance which sets up the principle of mutual inheritance between the Habsburgs and the Luxemburg counts.

Duchy of Luxemburg / Luxembourg
AD 1353 - 1815

(Information by Peter Kessler.)

1353 - 1383

1383

Wenceslas dies without an heir. Brabant reverts to his wife's family. The duchy of Luxembourg reverts to his nephew, Wenceslas II.

1383 - 1388

Wenceslas IV, king of Bohemia. HRE Wenzel (1378-1400).

1383 - 1443

Luxembourg remains unsettled. Wenceslas II, in need of money, offers Luxembourg as a pawn for the repayment of a substantial loan. Luxembourg falls under the control of various creditors in turn, ending up under the rule of Wenceslas' niece, Elizabeth of Göerlitz.

1388 - 1411

HRE rival (1410-1411).

1411 - 1412

1412 - 1415

Relative of the duke of Burgundy.

1415

Sigismund, brother of Wenceslas I and his successor as Holy Roman Emperor, is unable to repay the outstanding loan, so he leaves his niece, Elizabeth of Göerlitz, in control of the duchy.

1415 - 1443

Niece of Wenceslas II.

1441

Elizabeth elects to sell the duchy to Phillip the Good of Burgundy, who is also the count of Holland.

1443 - 1482

Luxembourg is gained by the duchy of Burgundy through conquest. Elizabeth is paid off by Philip the Good of Burgundy the following year.

1439 - 1482

1441 - 1467

Duke of Burgundy (1419-1467). Also count of Holland.

1467 - 1477

Son. Duke of Burgundy & count of Holland.

1474 - 1477

Duke René of Lorraine is facing increasing pressure both from Louis XI of France and Charles the Bold of Burgundy. He has already allied himself with Charles, but Burgundian garrisons have been established in Lorraine so René now switches allegiance to Louis. Charles invades Lorraine, forcing René to abandon Nancy on 30 November 1475. The city is recaptured on 5 October 1476 before René leads an army of Swiss mercenaries into the Battle of Nancy on 5 January 1477. Charles is defeated and killed, ending the Burgundian Wars. His death also ends Burgundian greatness. The lion's share of his domains are immediately annexed by Louis XI, while the sole heiress of Burgundy, Mary, marries Maximilian of Austria, future Holy Roman emperor.

1477 - 1482

Dau. Heiress of Burgundy & Holland.

1482 - 1815

When the duchy of Burgundy reverts to the French crown, Luxembourg passes to the Austrian Habsburgs as part of the Austrian Netherlands. Then at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, it is transferred to the king of the Netherlands. René II of Guise, duke of Lorraine, conquers the prévôté of Virton, part of Luxembourg lands, and annexes it to the duchy of Bar which he also holds.

Grand Duchy of Luxemburg / Luxembourg (Kingdom of the Netherlands)
AD 1815 - 1890

The grand duchy began as a stronghold known as Lucilinburhuc which was part of the duchy of Lorraine (in the Lower Lorraine region). This was a Frankish territory which had been created by the break-up of the Frankish empire. Then it was obtained by the count of Ardennes. A town grew up around the stronghold (which today is Luxembourg Castle).

The territory quickly grew in stature to become a full 'County of Luxemburg' in the eleventh century, and the 'Duchy of Luxemburg' in the fourteenth century. It was gained by the duchy of Burgundy in the fifteenth century, and then the Austrian Habsburgs in 1482. Recreation as a semi-autonomous state took place in the wake of the Napoleonic Wars against imperial France. Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris it was passed to the king of the Netherlands, but in 1890 it gained full independence.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from The Campaigns of Napoleon, David Chandler (Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd, London, 1996), from Journal of the Waterloo Campaign, General Cavalié Mercer (Da Capro Press, New York, 1995), from Waterloo, The Hundred Days, David Chandler (Osprey Publishing Ltd, 1980), and from External Link: BBC Country Profiles.)

1815 - 1830

Governor (provisionally until 29 May 1817).

1815

The duke of Wellington's Anglo-Dutch-German army defeats Napoleon's French army at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June in conjunction with the Prussian army, ending twenty-five years of war in Europe. By the power of the subsequent Congress of Vienna, William is elevated to the status of king to rule the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, incorporating Holland and Belgium. He is also made grand duke of Luxembourg.

Under imperial France, troops from Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands were forced to serve in the French ranks right up until 1814, so when they stood in the allied lines at Waterloo in 1815 their reliability was doubted by some, although many of their units did indeed stand firm and suffered heavy casualties - above that is a map of the new post-wars Confederation of German States (click or tap on map to view full sized)

1815 - 1840

King of the Netherlands. Abdicated.

1830

Belgium removes itself from Dutch rule and the following year proclaims its own kingdom. The country shortens its name to 'Kingdom of the Netherlands', although the king remains monarch of Luxembourg. In 1839 he also becomes duke of Limberg. At the same time, Luxembourg's long-standing governor, Jean Georges O V M Zacharie Willmar, is succeeded by a governor-general.

1831

Provisional governor-general (Jan-Mar).

1831

Grand duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. Governor-gen (Mar-May).

1831 - 1839

Head of the government commission.

1839 - 1840

Head of the civil administration.

1840 - 1849

King of the Netherlands. Duke of Limberg.

1840 - 1842

Head of the civil administration.

1842 - 1848

Governor.

1848

In a year of European revolutions, the citizens of France revolt against their government and the monarchy is overthrown. William II heads off potential revolt in the Netherlands by instituting a more liberal regime.

A committee which is headed by a prominent liberal, Johan Rudolf Thorbecke, is selected to create a new constitution, which allows for the 'Eerste Kamer' (the Dutch senate) to be filled by indirect election through the provincial states. The 'Tweede Kamer' (the house of representatives) is to be elected directly, although only through census suffrage rather than universal suffrage (until 1917). By instituting these changes, the king greatly decreases royal power.

1849 - 1890

King of the Netherlands. Duke of Limberg.

1850 - 1879

Son of William II of the Netherlands. Governor.

1856

In what is known as 'The Luxembourg Coup of 1856', William III revises Luxembourg's constitution on 27 November. Probably as a reaction to the loss of authority in the Netherlands, William greatly expands his powers. The announcement of the changes is made by Prince Henry, governor of Luxembourg.

1868

The major constitutional changes which had been introduced by William III in 1856 are now reversed with the promulgation of a new constitution. Some of William's changes, however, survive to the present day, including the creation of the council of state.

1890

William III has no surviving male heirs, so his daughter Wilhelmina becomes queen of the Netherlands. Under Salic Law, the grand duchy of Luxembourg cannot be ruled by a woman, so the position of duke is granted to a distant relative of William III. This ends the personal union between the Netherlands and Luxembourg, but it grants a ducal seat to Adolphe, the dispossessed duke of Nassau.

Grand Duchy of Luxembourg / Modern Luxembourg
AD 1890 - Present Day
Incorporating Heads of State (AD 1890-2022)

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The modern grand duchy of Luxembourg is a landlocked country in Western Europe. Its territory is small, amounting to no more than 2,586.4 kilometres squared. It developed with its focus firmly set around and in its eponymous capital city (which is sometimes shown as Luxemburg City, or the 'City of Luxembourg', using the German and French spellings respectively). The duchy is bordered to the south by France, to the north and west by Belgium, and along its entire eastern border by Germany.

The grand duchy began as a stronghold known as Lucilinburhuc which was part of the duchy of Lorraine (in the Lower Lorraine region). This was a Frankish territory which had been created by the break-up of the Frankish empire. Then it was obtained by the count of Ardennes. A town grew up around the stronghold (which today is Luxembourg Castle).

The territory quickly grew in stature to become a full 'County of Luxemburg' in the eleventh century, and the 'Duchy of Luxemburg' in the fourteenth century. It was gained by the duchy of Burgundy in the fifteenth century, and then the Austrian Habsburgs in 1482. Recreation as a semi-autonomous state took place in the wake of the Napoleonic Wars against imperial France. Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris it was passed to the king of the Netherlands, as the 'Grand Duchy of Luxembourg'. In 1890 it gained full independence when the crown of the Netherlands passed to a female. Under Salic Law which then governed the succession, the grand duchy could not be ruled by a woman, so the position of duke went to a distant relative.

Today the grand duchy is a prominent financial centre, with residents who are largely proficient in three languages, French, German, and 'Luxembourgish', a dialect of German. Of those residents, roughly a third are non-natives, drawn in by the high standard of living and the presence of a large number of multi-national businesses which have a base there. The duchy's wealth was built on the back of a once-flourishing steel manufacturing industry, although this declined towards the end of the twentieth century, prompting the switch to diversification and financial investment activities.

Please note that the History Files does not regularly monitor changes in modern heads of state or their representatives. Get in touch here if this section requires updating.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information from The Campaigns of Napoleon, David Chandler (Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd, London, 1996), from Journal of the Waterloo Campaign, General Cavalié Mercer (Da Capro Press, New York, 1995), from Waterloo, The Hundred Days, David Chandler (Osprey Publishing Ltd, 1980), and from External Links: BBC Country Profiles, and Grand Duke Jean of Luxembourg dies aged 98 (The Guardian), and European Community (Encyclopaedia Britannica), and Boris Johnson humiliated (The Guardian).)

1890 - 1905

First Nassauer. Son of William, titular duke of Nassau.

1905 - 1912

Son. Titular duke of Nassau. Ensured daughter succeeded.

1905 - 1907

William's uncle, Prince Nikolaus-Wilhelm, dies in 1905. This leaves William's cousin, Georg Nikolaus, count of Merenberg, as the only surviving legitimate male in the House of Nassau-Weilburg apart from William himself. However, he is the product of a morganatic marriage. In 1907, William declares the counts of Merenberg to be non-dynastic and therefore ineligible to succeed him. Instead he names as heiress-presumptive his own eldest daughter, Marie-Adélaïde.

A postcard view of central Luxembourg City which was produced around 1900, at the dawn of the grand duchy's first period of true independence

1907

The late Adolphe's sister is Sophia of Nassau, wife to King Oscar II of Sweden. With the death of her husband, her eldest son, Gustavus V ascends the Swedish throne. He eventually gains the record of being the country's second-longest reigning monarch, and its oldest monarch in terms of his age.

1912 - 1919

Dau. Accused pro-German. Forced to abdicate. Died 1924.

1914 - 1918

The German empire moves swiftly to support its ally, Austria-Hungary, in a long-anticipated Great War (later more readily known as the First World War, or World War I). In the west, Germany's armies reach the northern outskirts of Paris before they are stopped by the armies of Britain and France, together with the small Belgian army.

However, Luxembourg remains occupied for the duration of the war, and Marie-Adélaïde is perceived to be a tacit supporter. The populace grow increasingly unhappy with her, as do France and Belgium. Following a rebellion by a company of troops in her own army and their declaration of an army of the republic (quickly put down by French troops), she is persuaded by parliament to abdicate in favour of her sister.

Grand Duchess Marie-Adélaïde of Luxembourg, a postcard reproduction of a photo taken around 1912, possibly at her accession to the title

1919 - 1964

Sister. Abdicated. Died 1985. In exile 1940-1944.

1921

Attempts to escape German influence leads the duchy into an economic union with Belgium. Between the wars, Charlotte also sells the family's properties in Germany, including its hereditary seat in Nassau.

1940 - 1945

The Second World War witnesses a dramatic westwards push by Nazi Germany. Luxembourg's neutrality is violated when the country is occupied and informally annexed to the adjacent German province of Gau Moselland. Its government-in-exile establishes itself in London, where it organises resistance groups in Luxembourg and also sends a small group of volunteers to participate in the Normandy invasion of 1944.

The state itself suffers heavy wartime damage, with a third of all buildings being destroyed or heavily damaged (much of this is due to the Battle of the Bulge at the end of 1944). It also loses between a thousand and two thousand five hundred members of its Jewish Diaspora population to the Holocaust.

1945 - 1948

Following its release from renewed German occupation during the Second World War, Luxembourg abandons its neutrality and becomes a front-rank enthusiast for international co-operation. Charlotte returns from four years of self-imposed exile in Britain and Canada after having refused to serve as head of state under German supervision. In 1948 Luxembourg furthers its attempts to encourage a more unified Europe by becoming a founder member of a customs union with Belgium and the Netherlands.

Two new communities, Euratom and the European Community, were created by the Treaty of Rome in 1957, deepening integration in Europe

1957

Luxembourg continues its enthusiasm for greater European integration by standing as a founder member of the European Economic Community (EEC), a forerunner of the European Union. The EEC is created under the terms of the Treaty of Rome, which is signed by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany.

1964 - 2000

Son. Born 1921. Abdicated. Died 23 April 2019.

1970s

Luxembourg's successful steel industry has been exploiting the rich iron-ore grounds of the Red Lands since the century's start. Throughout the 1970s, though, the industry declines heavily. The state soon refocuses itself as a global financial centre, developing itself into a modern financial hub.

1981 - 1986

Grand Duke Jean's eldest son and heir, Henri marries Maria-Theresa Mestre. In response, Carlos Hugo, dispossessed hereditary duke of Parma (with strong connections to the Bourbons of Spain) rules that the marriage is unequal. In 1986 Jean issues a decree which renounces the titles of the House of Bourbon-Parma for himself and his family.

Modern Luxembourg, and the City of Luxembourg pictured here, is a wealthy, peaceful state which serves as a significant financial and service centre

1993

The 'European Communities' have comprised the EEC, the 'European Coal and Steel Community' (ECSC, which is dissolved in 2002), and the 'European Atomic Energy Community' (Euratom). Now these three communities are subsumed within the European Union (EU).

2000 - Present

Son. Cousin of King Phillippe of the Belgians.

2008

Grand Duke Henri announces that his conscience will not allow him to sign into law a bill which approves euthanasia. The political crisis is resolved by means of a constitutional reform which removes the need for laws to be approved by the head of state, merely (automatically) signed, thereby reducing the post to a largely ceremonial role.

2011

In June, the right to reign over the grand duchy by right of agnatic primogeniture is dropped in favour of absolute primogeniture. This permits any legitimate female descendants within the House of Nassau to be included in the line of succession.

2019

The United Kingdom's shambolic Prime Minster Boris Johnson is left humiliated and his claims of progress in the Brexit negotiations in tatters. The humiliation follows a chaotic visit to Luxembourg which ends in him being mocked by Luxembourg's own Prime Minister Xavier Bettel for cancelling a press appearance in order to avoid protesters.

Luxembourg's Prime Minister Xavier Bettel holds an ironic press conference with the missing Boris Johnson on Tuesday 17 September 2019

Son and heir. Born 11 November 1981.