European Kingdoms

Athens (Greeks)
c.1068 - 753 BC
Incorporating the Hereditary Archons

The first step towards establishing the earliest known democracy (although the Athenians of the time were not to know that this is where their actions would lead them) was the abolition of the kingship around 1068 BC. In its place the position of archon, or lord, of Athens was created. In other Greek cities the position was that of the chief magistrate, an office which the later Romans would perpetuate and which, in post-Roman Britain at least, would often be the equivalent of a king. In Athens it was an assignment for life, and the power held was, again, virtually equivalent to that of a king. Medros, the son of the last king, became the first archon.

1068 - 1048 BC

Son of Codros. First hereditary archon.

1048 - 1012 BC

1012 - 993 BC

993 - 952 BC

952 - 922 BC

922 - 892 BC

c.900 BC

Iron Age burials from this point onwards, in the Kerameikos and other locations, are often richly provided for and demonstrate that Athens has already become one of the leading centres of trade and prosperity in the region. This may be due to its secure stronghold on the Acropolis and its access to the sea which give it a distinct advantage over inland cities such as Sparta and Thebes.

892 - 864 BC

864 - 845 BC

845 - 825 BC

824 - 797 BC

796 - 778 BC

778 - 755 BC

755 - 753 BC

Last hereditary archon.

753 BC

The post of hereditary archon is abolished in favour of an elected system.

Elected Archons of Athens (Classical Period)
753 BC - 148 BC

The virtual kingship of the previous archons was abolished in favour of an elected official. Initially the term of office was ten years, and the individuals who held office under these terms are known as the decennial archons. In 683 BC the term of office was limited to just one year, the annual archons, with each candidate being selected from amongst the members of the Areopagus council. The polemarch headed the city's defensive forces, while the archon basileus handled the religious duties, including the ceremonial functions remaining from the former kingship.

As one of the leaders of Greece's emergence from the post-Hittite dark age, this city state experienced periods of turmoil, but out of that turmoil evolved the same evolution of philosophy and a spirit of examination of all the world contained that was starting to take place in contemporary China. A full recovery was underway by the eighth century BC and into the seventh, and Athens developed trade with the Phoenician city states, and with Syria as a whole. Papyrus was imported and these strange new locations were used in stories about the Greek gods. The Phoenician alphabet and eastern artistic influences were also imported, helping to lay the foundations for the world's earliest-known democracy.

(Additional information from The Persian Empire, J M Cook (1983), from The Histories, Herodotus (Penguin, 1996), from The Greek Settlements in Thrace until the Macedonian Conquest, Benjamin H Isaac, from the BBC series, The Story of China, by Michael Wood, first broadcast between 21 January and 25 February 2016, and from External Link: Encyclopaedia Iranica.)

753 - 743 BC

First of the decennial archons.

c.750 BC

By this time the Greek world has largely taken shape as a collection of city states, often at war with one another, but also feeling certain common ties of language, religion, and customs. The system mirrors the pre-dark age world of the Mycenaeans, perpetuated in their surviving mainland heirs, the Athenians.

743 - 733 BC

733 - 723 BC

723 - 713 BC

713 - 703 BC

703 - 693 BC

693 - 683 BC

Last of the decennial archons.

682 - 681 BC

First of the annual archons.

681 - 680 BC

680 - 679 BC

679 - 671 BC

Eight archons, names unknown.

671 - 670 BC

670 - 669 BC

Name unknown.

669 - 668 BC

668 - 667 BC

667 - 664 BC

Three archons, names unknown.

664 - 663 BC

663 - 659 BC

Four archons, names unknown.

659 - 658 BC

658 - 645 BC

Thirteen archons, names unknown.

645 - 644 BC

644 - 639 BC

Five archons, names unknown.

639 - 638 BC

638 - 634 BC

Four archons, names unknown.

634 - 633 BC

633 - 632 BC

Name unknown.

632 - 631 BC

Subdued an attempted coup.

632 BC

Cylon (or Kylon or Kulon) is an Athenian noble and previous Olympic Games winner. He attempts a coup with support from Megara, of which his father-in-law, Theagenes, is tyrant. The coup is opposed, and Cylon and his supporters take refuge in Athena's temple on the Acropolis. Cylon and his brother escape, but his followers are cornered and killed by the archons, led by Megacles. This is the first reliably datable event in Athenian history.

Athenian black figure pottery began to be created around 630 BC, although the earlier date of about 700 BC is claimed for Corinth - by the 630s it was certainly the dominant form of pottery

631 - 624 BC

Seven archons, names unknown.

624 - 623 BC

623 - 621 BC

Two archons, names unknown.

621 - 620 BC

Reformed the city's legal code.

621/620 BC

During the 39th Olympiad, and as a partial result of the attempted coup of 632 BC, Draco reforms the laws of Athens, establishing a legal code which replaces the previous system of oral law and blood feuds with court-enforceable laws. The laws are viewed as being harsh, hence the term 'draconian', but are generally welcomed by the people who are no longer at the mercy of nobles who could make up the law as they saw fit.

620 - 615 BC

Five archons, names unknown.

615 - 614 BC

614 - 605 BC

Nine archons, names unknown.

605 - 604 BC

604 - 600 BC

Four archons, names unknown.

c.600 BC

This is the approximate founding date for the Phocaean colony of Massalia, on today's southern French coast. The Massalians themselves go on to found a small neighbouring colony of Antipolis (today's Antibes).

600 - 599 BC

599 - 597 BC

Two archons, names unknown.

597 - 596 BC

596 - 595 BC

595 - 594 BC

594 - 593 BC

593 BC

The nobles of Athens have been growing increasingly worried by the expanding body of complaints from the commoners of Athens. Solon is given extraordinary powers to reform the state and ease the tensions between the different classes. He passes economic and political reforms that lay the foundations for the city's later greatness.

593 - 592 BC

592 - 591 BC

591 - 590 BC

590 - 589 BC

The city is briefly in a state of anarchy, probably as tensions continue to grow between the classes. This is despite Solon's reforms which have eased the situation somewhat but not removed it.

589 - 588 BC

588 - 587 BC

587 - 586 BC

Name unknown.

586 - 585 BC

Another period of anarchy grips the city and no archon is elected during it. Fighting takes place between the Hill (peasants on small farms), Shore (artisans and traders), and Plain (nobles) factions.

585 - 582 BC

Three archons, names unknown.

582 - 581 BC

Founded the 'Seven Sages.

c.582 BC

The 'Seven Sages' are created during the archonship of Damasius. Thales of Miletus, mathematician, astronomer, and pre-Socratic philosopher, is counted as the first sage. Details about his heritage conflict, either placing him in Miletus as the son of a Greek woman and Phoenician-descended man, or having him emigrate there from Athens (the cities have been closely linked for centuries). Once there, aside from his teachings, he is present on the campaign by Croesus of Lydia in 547 BC against Cyrus the Great.

581 - 580 BC

Second term of office. Expelled.

580 - 578 BC

Damasias is expelled during his second term of office. During a renewed spell of anarchy in Athens, a committee of ten fulfils the role of archon in 580-579 BC, but apparently it fails to survive beyond that. The city remains ungoverned until 578 BC.

578 - 577 BC

Name unknown.

577 - 576 BC

576 - 570 BC

Six archons, names unknown.

570 - 569 BC

569 - 566 BC

Three archons, names unknown.

566 - 565 BC

565 - 561 BC

Four archons, names unknown.

561 - 560 BC

561 BC

Fighting in Athens continues between the Hill (peasants on small farms), Shore (artisans and traders), and Plain (nobles) factions. Eventually, the leader of the hill faction, Peisistratus, gains the upper hand. Athens falls under his rule as tyrant (although tyrant should be used in the Greek sense, not its modern sense). Peisistratus dominates Athens as a benevolent dictator, and becomes highly popular thanks to making the city very wealthy and powerful.

561 - 556 BC

Tyrant. Expelled, but returned the following year.

560 - 559 BC

First archon elected under the tyrant's rule.

559 - 558 BC

558 - 556 BC

Two archons, names unknown.

556 - 555 BC

556 - 555 BC

Peisistratus is briefly expelled, but returns the following year, regaining control over Athens.

Two coins issued during the tyranny of Peisistratus in Athens, who became the master of the city by force of arms (hence the traditional title of tyrant), and who was twice restored to his position

555 - 550 BC

Restored tyrant. Expelled for the second time.

555 - 554 BC

554 - 548 BC

Six archons, names unknown.

c.550 - 546 BC

Peisistratus is expelled again, but once again returns to regain his control of Athens, this time four years later. At the third attempt he fully establishes his, apparently benevolent, dictatorship of the city.

548 - 547 BC

547 - 546 BC

546 - 528 BC

Restored as tyrant for the second time.

546 - 545 BC

545 - 535 BC

Ten archons, names unknown.

536 - 535 BC

535 - 533 BC

Two archons, names unknown.

533 - 532 BC

532 - 528 BC

Four archons, names unknown.

528 BC

Peisistratus dies peacefully and is succeeded by his two sons, who apparently rule jointly. They continue their father's policies, at first successfully, but Hipparchus begins to abuse his power.

528 - c.510 BC

Son and successor to Peisistratus as tyrant. Assassinated.

520 - c.514 BC

Brother. Co-tyrant. Overthrown.

528 - 527 BC

527 - 526 BC

526 - 525 BC

525 - 524 BC

Grandson of the king of Sicyon.

524 - 523 BC

523 - 522 BC

522 - 521 BC

521 - 518 BC

Three archons, names unknown.

518 - 517 BC

517 - 511 BC

Six archons, names unknown.

c.514 BC

Hipparchus is assassinated by Harmodius and Aristogeiton, who earn themselves the title of the Tyrannicides. In retaliation, Hippias has them executed, but he becomes bitter, and his rule takes a turn towards increased cruelty.

c.511 - 510 BC

Hippias is overthrown with the help of Sparta, and the beginnings of Athenian democracy begin to be established. A radical politician of the aristocratic class, named Cleisthenes, takes charge and begins to establish democracy in the city.

511 - 510 BC

First independent archon since 561 BC.

510 - 509 BC

509 - 508 BC

508 - 507 BC

Son of Tisander. Exiled by Cleisthenes.

508 - 507 BC

A friend of Cleomenes I of Sparta, Isagoras is elected archon after having remained in Athens during the tyranny of Hippias. His appointment is opposed not only by Cleisthenes but by the majority of the city's population. Isagoras and Cleomenes work to get Cleisthenes expelled from the city, but a general Athenian revolt sees Isagoras instead being trapped and exiled, while three hundred of his supporters are executed. Cleisthenes returns as archon.

508 - 507 BC

Competed with Isagoras. Expelled by Cleomenes I of Sparta.

508/507 BC

The populace of Athens creates the world's first organised democracy. Although it is copied by other Greek cities, it is the best recorded of them all, and the most stable. It is handled on a very restricted basis, with women and anyone without two Athenian-born parents ineligible to vote. In fact, the position of women in this democracy is surprisingly low. It is possible that the world's first face veil is invented for women in Athens.

The School of Athens by Italian Renaissance artist Rafael (1483-1520) represents philosophy by including such figures as Aristotle (centre, in sky blue) and Plato (centre, in purple and red)

While the date of 508 BC (or 507 BC) is given here, there is a great deal of uncertainty about the precise moment at which Athenian democracy emerges, with dates between 510-500 BC being given. As it is known that Cleisthenes champions this radical political reform in the face of the increasingly hard rule of the tyrant Pisistratus (522-521 BC), it seems appropriate to place it here.

In 507 BC the Athenians are threatened with attack on three fronts by hostile Greek neighbours. They send to Sardis, capital of the Persian satrapy of Sparda, asking for a Persian alliance. This involves the Greek envoys recognising Persian suzerainty, something which the Athenians promptly disavow after the emergency is over. The Persians probably see it differently, viewing the Athenians as rebellious subjects when they renounce the alliance, what Darius the Great calls 'the Lie'.

507 - 506 BC

506 - 504 BC

Two archons, names unknown.

504 - 503 BC

503 - 501 BC

Two archons, names unknown.

501 - 500 BC

500 - 499 BC

499 BC

The Ionian Greeks of western Anatolia and the islands of the eastern Aegean who are under Persian hegemony now rise in the Ionian Revolt. The Carians join in and, with the Ionians being led by Aristagoras, tyrant of Miletus, they inflict heavy losses on the Persians. Similar revolts arise in Aeolis, Salamis, and Doris as the Greeks see a chance for freedom. Athens sends troops to aid the Ionian islands but the Persians gradually gain the upper hand and the revolt begins to crumble.

499 - 498 BC

498 - 497 BC

Name unknown.

497 - 496 BC

496 - 495 BC

495 - 494 BC

494 - 493 BC

493 BC

The end of the Ionian Revolt probably sees the Persians breath a sigh of relief that these troublesome Greeks are back under proper control. The main leader of the revolt, Aristagoras of Miletus, flees to Thrace in the hopes of setting up a colony outside Persia's control, but he is killed in a battle against a nearby town. His chosen successor in Miletus is Pythagoras, but Darius the Great kills the men of the city and enslaves its women and children, ensuring that the city is deserted. For its part in the revolt, Athens will soon face the first of two Persian invasions of Greece itself.

493 - 492 BC

Archon and pre-eminent Athenian. Banished.

492 - 491 BC

491 - 490 BC

490 BC

In response to the Athenian support of the Ionian Revolt, Darius the Great invades mainland Greece. Athens is sacked, but only after its citizens withdraw safely, and subsequently the Persian invaders are defeated by Athens and Plataea at the Battle of Marathon in August or September of the year. During this period, Callimachus and Miltiades are strategoi for Athens.

490 - 489 BC

489 - 488 BC

488 - 487 BC

487 - 486 BC

486 - 485 BC

485 - 484 BC

484 - 483 BC

483 - 482 BC

483 BC

A rich seam of lead is found in the mines of Laurion in southern Attica, to the south of Athens. Silver is located within this seam, making Athens suddenly a very rich city. It also becomes a very slave-rich society, as workers are needed to dig the mines. Themistocles, still a highly-influential politician, persuades the democratic assembly to start a crash ship-building programme. The goal is two hundred triremes, trebling Athenian naval power. This fleet proves vital at the end of the decade.

482 - 481 BC

Name unknown.

481 - 480 BC

480 - 479 BC

480 - 479 BC

Invading Greece in 480 BC, the Persians subdue the Thracian tribes (except for the Satrai, precursors to the Bessoi) and the Macedonians. Then the vast army of the Persian King Xerxes makes its way southwards and is swiftly engaged by Athens and Sparta in the Vale of Tempe. The Persians are subsequently stymied by a mixed force of Greeks - which includes Athenians, Corinthians, Helots, Mycenaeans, Thebans, and Thespians - led by Sparta under King Leonidas at Thermopylae. (These events are depicted somewhat colourfully - but no less impressively for that - in the 2007 film, 300.)

Athens, as the leader of the coalition of city states known as the Delian League, fights the Persian navy at the battles of Artemisium and Salamis, the latter being a resounding Greek victory. It leaves much of the Persian navy destroyed and Xerxes is forced to retreat to Asia, leaving his army in Greece under Mardonius (with the naval battles being shown to superb graphic effect in the 2014 sequel film, 300: Rise of an Empire, although it does contain a great many historical inaccuracies). As a reward for his support of Xerxes during the war, the exiled Demaratus of Sparta is granted a satrapy of his own in Pergamum, whilst Queen Artemisia I of Halicarnassus in Karkâ is sent to Ephesus to care for the sons of Xerxes. The following year, Mardonius meets the Greeks in a final battle. The Spartans, now at full strength, lead a pan-Greek army at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC which decisively defeats the Persians and ends the Greco-Persian War.

480 - 400? BC

The northern coastal region of the Persian satrapy of Katpatuka is carved off to form a new province called Pontus. The exact date at which this occurs is unknown, but it is an established fact by the time of Xenophon of Athens in the first half of the fourth century BC.

479 - 478 BC

Father of Pericles.

479 - 460s? BC

Following the evacuation of Xerxes and his great army, many of the Persian governors in Thrace are defeated by Greeks and expelled. One exception is Maskames of Doriskos. He holds out bravely, resisting all attempts to dislodge him. The only other local governor to do so is Boges of Eion, but he faces his eventual defeat in 475 BC by walking into the flames of his burning command.

Just how long Doriskos holds out is open to interpretation. Herodotus records 'many attempts' by the Greeks to reclaim it, which must cover several years, but some opinion goes so far as to say that the Greeks never recover the city. Instead it is eventually taken over by Thracians.

478 - 477 BC

477 - 476 BC

476 - 475 BC

475 - 474 BC

474 - 473 BC

473 - 472 BC

472 - 471 BC

471 - 470 BC

470 - 469 BC

469 - 468 BC

469 BC

Athenian statesman and general, Kimon (or Cimon) leads an allied Greek fleet to Caria. The attack focuses on destroying Persian strongholds as far as Phaselis on the border with Pamphylia. The response from Xerxes is to send an army under Pherendates to Pamphylia and a joint fleet from Khilakku and Phoenicia (rebuilt after the loss of the Persian fleet in 479 BC) under the command of Tithraustes, a bastard son of Xerxes. The new fleet is destroyed and captured, and the Persian army is utterly defeated.

468 - 467 BC

468 - 459 BC

Athens wrests Lycia from the Persians, and it is perhaps this Athenian acquisition of more territory which prompts Admitos of Epirus to oppose Themistocles (the former archon) and his command of Athenian affairs. The issue is rested upon the peaceful death of Themistocles.

The Athenian politician and general Themistocles (archon in 493-492 BC) helped build up the city's navy so that it was a force to be reckoned with when the Persians invaded Greece - and thanks to this, Athenian Admiral Cimon was able to defeat the Persians on the banks of the River Eurymedon in Pamphylia in 465 BC

467 - 466 BC

466 - 465 BC

465 - 464 BC

Sophanes fulfils the role of strategos (military general).

464 - 463 BC

463 - 462 BC

Cimon fulfils the role of strategos.

462 - 461 BC

Assassinated.

461 - 460 BC

460 - 459 BC

460 BC

The First Peloponnesian War, between Athens and Sparta, begins. Pleistoanax of Sparta advocates peace, but in 446 BC he is charged by the Spartans with taking a bribe, probably from Pericles of Athens. This is allegedly to encourage him to withdraw from the plain of Eleusis in Attica after leading the Peloponnesian forces there following the withdrawal of Euboea and Megara from the Athenian empire. As a result of the charge he is exiled. His father is regent in his stead. In fact, Pericles had probably been offering good peace terms. In 428 BC, Pleistoanax is recalled and restored in obedience to the advice of the Delphic oracle.

In the same year, Satrap Achaemenes of Egypt is killed at the Battle of Pampremis. His opponents are Inarus (or Inaros), son of a Psamtik and leader of the Second Rebellion in Egypt, and his Athenian allies. It is generally assumed that Psamtik is a member of the dispossessed Saite dynasty. The Greek threat is finally ended in 454 BC when Megabyzus, former satrap of Ebir-nāri, arrives with a fresh army. Inarus is hauled off to Susa where he is reported to be crucified.

459 - 458 BC

458 - 457 BC

457 - 456 BC

456 - 455 BC

Later involved in the Peace of Callias (447 BC).

455 - 454 BC

454/453 BC

An Athenian army under the command of Myronides marches into Thessaly, being joined by allied Boeotians and Phocians along the way. The campaign is partly in revenge for losses suffered in a previous campaign, but also by a wish to restore Orestes to his native city. Orestes' late father had been an Athenian ally. The campaign ends without a result, and the Athenians return home along with Orestes.

454 - 453 BC

454 BC

As the 'Halikarnassians' appear in the first Athenian tribute list of 454 BC, most scholars have suggested that the rule of Lygdamis as tyrant of Halicarnassus must end before this date. An opposing theory shows that the tribute list does not necessarily imply that Lygdamis has ceased to rule. Either way, at some point around this date, and probably by 450 BC at the latest, Lygdamis is driven out of Halicarnassus (Herodotus is a visitor to the city very soon after this event). Halicarnassus joins Athen's Delian League until 395 BC.

453 - 452 BC

453 - 438 BC

The Parthenon is constructed on the Acropolis ('high city' or citadel) in Athens as a symbol of the city's power in the Aegean. The costs of construction are paid for from the treasury of the Delian League of independent city states which Athens has commandeered (both the treasury and the league, turning it into the Athenian empire). It is during this period, guided by the legendary orator Pericles, that Athens achieves the height of its power and influence.

452 - 451 BC

451 - 450 BC

450 - 449 BC

449 - 448 BC

448 - 447 BC

447 BC

The Peace of Callias brings the Greco-Persian Wars to an end. The treaty is named after the head of a wealthy Athenian family who is sent to conclude it with Artaxerxes I of Persia. To differentiate him from his grandfather and grandson who share the same name, this statesman is known as Callias II (archon in 456-455 BC).

447 - 446 BC

c.440s BC

'Some years' after the expedition by Myronides of 454 BC, Pericles of Athens summons a conference of all the Greeks to confer about the shrines destroyed by the Persians during the invasion of 480-479 BC. Among those invited to attend are the Thessalians, the Phthiot Achaeans (one of the few direct mentions of Phthia itself), the Oetaeans and the Malians. However, opposition by Sparta causes the project to be abandoned.

Around the same time the Greek writer Herodotus uses the word 'Asia' in reference to Anatolia, or perhaps the Persian empire as a whole, in order to differentiate it from Greece or that other great civilisation, Egypt. The origins of the word appear to be in a confederacy in western Anatolia known as Assuwa or Assua. Certainly by about 1400-1300 BC this confederacy had already been formed by a number of regional minor states which, collectively, had been allied to the Hittite empire dominating Anatolia at that time. The city of Troy had counted itself as a member of this confederacy.

Perciles is also responsible for sending a naval expedition to the Greek cities of the Black Sea which are under tribute to Persia, probably soon after 444 BC, making a display of Athenian power, attempting to relieve the cities there from oppression, and to stimulate trade with Attica. It is at Sinope that the efficient Lamachus with thirteen ships is tasked with expelling the tyrant Timesilaus. He does so with great efficiency, and not long afterwards Athens votes to send six hundred volunteer colonists to Sinope to occupy the houses and lands of the defeated tyrant and his followers.

446 - 445 BC

445 - 444 BC

445 BC

The First Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta comes to an end as peace is agreed. In the same year (or in 443 BC), Pericles is elected strategos after the assassination of Ephialtes. He holds the post continuously until 429 BC.

444 - 443 BC

443 - 442 BC

443 - 429 BC

Pericles is a strategos for Athens for this period. His death in 429 BC brings this unusually long post to an end, but it has overseen a decline in the power of the archons in favour of the strategoi. By this time many Lykian cities have stepped back from their membership of the Athenian League. Only Phaselis and Telmessos remain. An Athenian expedition in 429 BC to force Lykian re-engagement ends in military defeat.

442 - 441 BC

441 - 440 BC

440 - 439 BC

439 - 438 BC

438 - 437 BC

437 - 436 BC

436 - 435 BC

435 - 434 BC

434 - 433 BC

433 - 432 BC

432 - 431 BC

431 - 430 BC

431 - 404 BC

The Second Peloponnesian War pitches Athens against Sparta in all-out war as resentment grows at the Athenian dominance of Greece. Fortunes swing either way for several years, but the gradual diminution of Athenian power that results from the wars would also seem to be the catalyst for a virtual cessation of Greek trade with the Illyrian tribes. Greek luxury items stop appearing alongside grave goods after a little more than a century of what must be quite intensive interaction.

Shown here is a fragment of an Athenian inscription which has been dated to about 425 BC and which contains part of a list of archons, in this case six of them from the 520s BC

430 - 429 BC

429 - 428 BC

428 - 427 BC

427 - 426 BC

426 - 425 BC

425 - 424 BC

424 - 423 BC

423 - 422 BC

422 - 421 BC

421 - 420 BC

420 - 419 BC

419 - 418 BC

418 - 417 BC

417 - 416 BC

416 BC

Part of Athens' strategy during the Second Peloponnesian War is to capture the Corinthian colony of Syracuse. The expedition to achieve that is sent off in this year. The expedition has also been requested by the Elymi of Sicily to help in their ongoing struggle against the colony of Selinus.

416 - 415 BC

415 - 414 BC

414 - 413 BC

413 - 412 BC

412 BC

During the Second Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta, the failure of the former city and its allied corps of Messapian archers to take the Corinthian colony of Syracuse and the subsequent loss of thousands of troops almost brings the city and its empire to its knees.

The Athenian strategoi are executed in Sicily, but the city is able to agree a beneficial trade deal with Macedonia to supply it with copious amounts of wood with which to rebuild the fleet.

412 - 411 BC

411 - 410 BC

Died in office.

411 BC

Sparta's acquisition of Persian gold sees the Athenian fleet starved of huge numbers of freelance rowers and soldiers, giving Sparta dominance both on land and, for the first time, at sea. Athens is defeated in the Second Peloponnesian War and Sparta is established as the greatest Greek power.

Writing at this time about the colonies of Graecia Magna, the reliable Greek historian Thucydides of Alimos (close to Athens), mentions the Siculi. He says that groups of Siculi still occupy the Italian mainland in his time. It is possible, given their close links in the past with the Itali (and therefore their close cousins the Morgetes), that both peoples could be Siculi in all but name.

410 - 409 BC

409 - 408 BC

408 - 407 BC

407 - 406 BC

406 BC

Construction of the Temple of the Erechtheum on the Acropolis in Athens is completed. It derives its name from a shrine dedicated to the legendary Greek hero, Erichthonius, and is possibly built by Mnesicles.

406 - 405 BC

405 - 404 BC

404 - 403 BC

Not recognised during Sparta dominance of Athens.

404 - 403 BC

Following Athens' total defeat in the Second Peloponnesian War, Sparta sets up the oligarchy of the Thirty Tyrants, which is naturally pro-Spartan and which oversees the exile of many prominent citizens. Pythodorus is not recognised as archon at a time when there is a high level of disenchantment with democracy. However, democracy is restored the following year, 403 BC, by a group of exiles led by General Thrasybulus.

403 - 402 BC

Athenian democracy is restored.

402 - 401 BC

401 - 400 BC

401 BC

A revolt against the Persian king is led by Cyrus, satrap of Asia Minor. He mobilises an army which also consists of ten thousand Greek mercenaries to attack his brother. Defeat leads to his death in October 401 BC at the Battle of Cunaxa.

Accompanying the many Greeks on this campaign is Xenephon, a notable Greek writer from Athens. He notes that (the now-Persian) Ecbatana is much smaller than the generous estimate given by Herodotus some half a century before him. Xenephon offers a very credible three hundred metres for each of the outer sides, and even claims that it has no walls other than that around the citadel at the very top of the hill. What Herodotus had termed walls (fortifications) could simply be painted terraces, foundations for the road, spiralling up around the hill and leading up to the palace, which at this time is certainly walled and is accented in gold. If the area around the outside of the hill where the road begins its rise is counted as part of the 'city' then its size would come much closer to Herodotus' claims.

The Battle of Cunaxa saw the end of just one in a number of internal Persian revolts that often involved thousands of troops on either side, although in this case the presence of a large body of Greek mercenaries should have been an indicator of the future threat the Greeks would become

400 - 399 BC

399 - 398 BC

399 BC

Following the distress of suffering utter defeat in the Second Peloponnesian War, the type of disturbing free speech that the philosopher, Socrates, has long championed can no longer be tolerated. He is tried and condemned to death, with charges of mocking the gods being brought against him. His sentence is to drink poison. His pupil, Plato, later writes him into history as the world's first martyr to free speech.

398 - 397 BC

397 - 396 BC

396 - 395 BC

395- 394 BC

395 - 387 BC

At the start of the Corinthian War, Sparta fights against a coalition of four allied states; Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos; all initially backed by Persia and all riled by Sparta's imperialistic treatment of the rest of Greece. The hold by Athens over its own empire is fading in the face of continual warfare. Halicarnassus (and therefore Caria) is returned to Persian control in 395 BC.

394 - 393 BC

393 - 392 BC

392 - 391 BC

391 - 390 BC

391 BC

With the aid of Athens, Evagoras of Salamis leads a successful revolt against Persia and temporarily makes himself master of the island of Cyprus.

Shown here are the two sides of a silver coin which was issued by the Cyprian Greek King Evagoras during his Athenian-supported rebellious reign of Salamis

390 - 389 BC

389 - 388 BC

388 - 387 BC

387 - 386 BC

386 - 385 BC

387 BC

The Corinthian War against Sparta ends with the Peace of Antalcidas. Athens loses Lycia to the Persians and gives up its support of the Persian-occupied Ionian islands, but the period of peace allows the city to rebuild its defences and begin a resurgence of its former role as a power in Greece.

385 - 384 BC

384 - 383 BC

383 - 382 BC

382 - 381 BC

381 - 380 BC

380 - 379 BC

379 - 378 BC

378 - 377 BC

377 - 376 BC

376 - 375 BC

375 - 374 BC

374 - 373 BC

373 - 372 BC

372 - 371 BC

371 - 370 BC

371 BC

In an effort to solve the problem of post-Peloponnesian War conflicts, a pan-Greek conference is called. However, the arrogant Agesilaus II of Sparta picks a fight with Thebes. His fellow Spartan king, Cleombrotus, leads the allied Spartan-Peloponnesian army of about 700 Spartans and 1,300 allies (some reluctant) against a Theban army three times their number under Epaminondas at the Battle of Leuctra. Cleombrotus' death and the utter defeat of his army leads to the Helots being freed and Spartan dominance in Greece being ended forever.

370 - 369 BC

369 - 368 BC

368 - 367 BC

367 - 366 BC

366 - 365 BC

365 BC

Ariobarzanus, satrap of Phrygia, and Datames, satrap of Khilakku and Katpatuka, are in revolt against Persian King Artaxerxes II. Autophradates, satrap of Sparda, has been ordered to suppress the rebellion and he has already managed to expel Ariobarzanes from the greater part of his satrapy. Now, in 365 BC, Athens sends thirty ships and 8,000 mercenaries to aid Ariobarzanus. He rewards Athens with the gift of Sestos and Crithote, cities on the Thracian Chersonesus.

365 - 364 BC

364 - 360 BC

Mithridates (sometimes shown as Mehrdad), a son of Ariobarzanus of Phrygia, now occupies Heracleia, the most important Greek city on the Black Sea coast. Soon all of Asia Minor (Anatolia) revolts against Artaxerxes II of Persia.

364 - 363 BC

363 - 362 BC

362 - 361 BC

362 - 360 BC

By now even Autophradates, satrap of Sparda, has been driven to join the rebels against Persian King Artaxerxes II. Sparta, and also Takhôs, pharaoh of Egypt, send substantial help to the rebels. Two years later, in 360 BC, Ariobarzanes is betrayed by his son, Mithridates, and is executed.

Also in 362 BC, Athens and Sparta, together with the Eleans and the Mantinaeans, are defeated by the Thebans at the Battle of Mantinea. The battle is fought on 4 July, with the Thebans being supported by the Arcadians and the Boeotian League. The Spartan defeat paves the way for Macedonian supremacy later in the century.

361 - 360 BC

360 - 359 BC

359 BC

The pretender to the Macedonian throne, Argaeus, attempts to secure the throne with Athenian support. The rightful king, Philip, persuades the Athenians not to interfere. Argaeus gathers his supporters, along with some freelance Athenians, and attempts to capture the capital by force but is repulsed. While retreating back to his headquarters at Methone, he is ambushed by Philip and defeated. He either dies during the fighting or is executed afterwards.

359 - 358 BC

358 - 357 BC

357 - 356 BC

c.356 BC

Athens forms an alliance with Cetriporis son of Berisades of the Thracians, Grabus of the Grabaei, and Lyppeius of the Paeonians, with Philip II of Macedonia as their common enemy. Unfortunately, a few months later and with the Athenians engaged in the Aegean, Philip's general defeats all three of the northern allies.

356 - 355 BC

355 - 354 BC

354 - 353 BC

353 - 352 BC

352 - 351 BC

351 - 350 BC

350 - 349 BC

349 - 348 BC

348 - 347 BC

347 - 346 BC

346 - 345 BC

345 - 344 BC

344 - 343 BC

343 - 342 BC

342 - 341 BC

341 - 340 BC

340 - 339 BC

339 - 338 BC

338 BC

Philip II of Macedonia defeats the Greek states at the Battle of Chaeronea and gains overlordship over all of Greece, including Athens, Corinth and Sparta. Athens and other city states join the Corinthian League (or Hellenic League) which is formed by Phillip to unify the military forces at his command so that he can pressure Persia.

With his conquest of Greece, Phillip II laid down the foundations for the Hellenic empire

338 - 337 BC

337 - 336 BC

336 - 335 BC

335 - 334 BC

334 - 333 BC

333 - 332 BC

332 - 331 BC

331 - 330 BC

330 - 329 BC

329 - 328 BC

328 - 327 BC

327 - 326 BC

326 - 325 BC

c.325 BC

Pytheas of Massalia, a Greek geographer and explorer undertakes a voyage of exploration around north-west Europe. During his trip he visits Britain, which he names the Prettanic isles (spellings vary thanks to the translation from the original Greek) - and possibly Ireland where he or later Greek arrivals are written into the legend of the Fomóraigh kings.

He certainly travels extensively, making notes of what he sees, and also provides what may be the earliest written report of Stonehenge. He names the promontory of Kantion (land of the Cantii), the promontory of Belerion (land of the Cornovii), and Orkas (the Orkneys).

The details recorded by Pytheas were interpreted by Ptolemy in the second century AD, and this 1490 Italian reconstruction of the section covering the British Isles and northern Gaul shows Ptolemy's characteristically lopsided Scotland at the top

325 - 324 BC

324 - 323 BC

323 - 322 BC

323 - 322 BC

Upon the death of Alexander his two successors are retained as figureheads while the empire is governed by Alexander's powerful generals. Perdiccas, the leading cavalry commander, is the first general to rule, carrying the title 'Regent of Macedonia', first with Meleager, head of the infantry officers, as his lieutenant, but alone after he has him murdered. The Corinthian League is subsequently dissolved (in 322 BC).

Immediately, a coalition of Greek cities springs up with the intention of detaching Greece from the Macedonians, including Athens and the Aetolian League. Despite two impressive victories in battle on land, the allies are undone when the Athenian navy fails to secure control of the seas. The Macedonians are able to bring in reinforcements and the war ends in victory for the Macedonians and their Boeotian allies. The Macedonian General Leonnatus, satrap of Phrygia, has been killed in the process of gaining it, however.

322 - 321 BC

321 - 320 BC

320 - 319 BC

319 - 318 BC

318 - 317 BC

317 - 316 BC

317 BC

Demetrius Phalereus is installed as governor by Cassander of Macedonia. The democratic system enjoyed by Athens is subsumed during this period.

317 - 307 BC

Macedonian governor.

316 - 315 BC

315 - 314 BC

314 - 313 BC

313 - 312 BC

312 - 311 BC

311 - 310 BC

310 - 309 BC

309 BC

The Fourth War of the Diadochi breaks out, with Ptolemy of Hellenic Egypt initially claiming Corinth among his territories.

309 - 308 BC

308 - 307 BC

307 - 306 BC

307 - 306 BC

At the start of his reign as an Antigonid king, Demetrius I frees Athens from the rule of Cassander of Macedonia and Ptolemy of the Lysimachian empire. Demetrius Phalereus is expelled and the city's democratic system is restored.

306 - 305 BC

305 - 304 BC

304 - 303 BC

303 BC

During the Fourth War of the Diadochi, Corinth switches hands, with Cassander of Macedonia securing Greece for himself.

303 - 302 BC

302 - 301 BC

301 BC

The Fourth War of the Diadochi ends in the death of the Antigonid leader, Antigonus, at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. The final borders between the former general of Alexander the Great are generally agreed and peace of a kind is established.

The Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC ended the drawn-out and destructive Wars of the Diadochi which decided how Alexander's empire would be divided

301 - 300 BC

300 - 299 BC

299 - 298 BC

298 - 297 BC

297 - 296 BC

296 - 295 BC

295 - 294 BC

294 - 292 BC

Served two terms of office.

292 - 291 BC

291 - 290 BC

290 - 289 BC

289 - 288 BC

288 - 287 BC

287 - 286 BC

286 - 285 BC

285 - 284 BC

284 - 283 BC

283 - 282 BC

282 - 281 BC

281 - 280 BC

280 - 279 BC

279 - 277 BC

Celtic tribes are arriving in the Balkans by this time. The third campaign by Celts attacks a Greek force of 40,000 at Thermopylae, which is under the command of an Athenian named Callippus. Then they advance to Delphi in 278 BC where they are routed by the massed Greek army, and then suffer a further, crushing defeat at the hands of the Antigonid King Antigonus II in 277 BC. They retreat from Greece and pass through Thrace to enter into Asia Minor, although a small contingent (around 20,00 people, half of whom are warriors) under the leadership of Liutarius and Leonnarius already seems to have made the journey in 278 BC, with the rest merely following a now-established route in their wake.

279 - 278 BC

278 - 277 BC

277 - 276 BC

276 - 275 BC

275 - 274 BC

274 - 273 BC

273 - 272 BC

Name unknown.

272 - 271 BC

271 - 270 BC

270 - 269 BC

269 - 268 BC

268 - 267 BC

267 - 266 BC

267 - 261 BC

The Chremonidean War is fought between a coalition of Greek city states led by Athens and Sparta for the restoration of their independence from Macedonian influence, aided by the Ptolemaic Egyptians who are naturally threatened not only by Macedonia's apparently peaceful rule of Greece, but by its friendship with the Seleucid empire.

A coin showing the face of the Macedonian king, Antigonus II Gonatas

266 - 265 BC

265 - 264 BC

264 - 263 BC

263 - 262 BC

262 - 261 BC

261 - 260 BC

261 BC

The Chremonidean War comes to an end when Athens is captured by Antigonus II of Macedonia and Sparta also agrees peace terms. Peace and prosperity are restored throughout Greece.

260 - 259 BC

259 - 258 BC

Name unknown.

258 - 257 BC

257 - 256 BC

256 - 255 BC

255 - 254 BC

254 - 253 BC

253 - 252 BC

252 - 251 BC

251 - 250 BC

250 - 249 BC

249 - 248 BC

248 - 247 BC

247 - 246 BC

246 - 245 BC

245 - 244 BC

244 - 243 BC

243 - 242 BC

242 - 241 BC

241 - 240 BC

240 - 239 BC

239 - 238 BC

238 - 237 BC

237 - 236 BC

236 - 235 BC

235 - 234 BC

234 - 233 BC

233 - 232 BC

Name unknown.

232 - 231 BC

231 - 230 BC

Name unknown.

230 - 229 BC

229 - 228 BC

228 - 227 BC

227 - 226 BC

226 - 225 BC

225 - 224 BC

224 - 223 BC

223 - 222 BC

Name unknown.

222 - 221 BC

221 - 220 BC

220 - 219 BC

219 - 218 BC

218 - 217 BC

217 - 216 BC

Name unknown.

216 - 215 BC

215 - 205 BC

During the Second Punic War, Philip V of Macenonia allies himself to Carthage. To avoid a possible reinforcement of Hannibal by Macedonia, Rome dispatches a force to tie down the Macedonians in the First Macedonian War.

215 - 214 BC

214 - 213 BC

213 - 212 BC

212 - 211 BC

211 - 210 BC

210 - 209 BC

Name unknown.

209 - 208 BC

208 - 207 BC

207 - 206 BC

206 - 205 BC

205 BC

The First Macedonian War ends indecisively with the Treaty of Phoenicia. Even though it is only a minor conflict, it opens the way for later Roman military intervention in Greece.

This silver tetradrachm bears the head of Philip V of Macedonia

205 - 204 BC

204 - 203 BC

203 - 202 BC

202 - 201 BC

201 - 200 BC

200 - 196 BC

The Second Macedonian War is triggered by apparently falsified claims by Pergamon and Rhodes of a secret treaty between Macedonia and the Seleucid empire. Rome launches an attack on Macedonia.

200 - 199 BC

199 - 198 BC

198 - 197 BC

197 BC

After a spell of indecisive conflict, Philip V of Macedonia is defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalae, while his general, Androsthenes, is defeated near Corinth. The Macedonian army is drastically reduced in size as a result of the defeat, and Philip's standing as an important Greek king is greatly diminished. Corinth becomes the capital of the Achaean League of Greek states.

197 - 196 BC

196 - 195 BC

195 - 193 BC

Two archons, names unknown.

193 - 192 BC

192 - 191 BC

191 - 190 BC

Name unknown.

190 - 189 BC

189 - 188 BC

188 - 187 BC

187 - 186 BC

186 - 185 BC

185 - 184 BC

184 - 183 BC

183 - 182 BC

182 - 181 BC

181 - 180 BC

180 - 179 BC

179 - 178 BC

178 - 177 BC

177 - 176 BC

176 - 175 BC

175 - 174 BC

174 - 173 BC

Name unknown.

173 - 172 BC

172 - 171 BC

171 - 170 BC

170 - 169 BC

Name unknown.

169 - 168 BC

168 - 167 BC

167 - 166 BC

166 - 165 BC

165 - 164 BC

164 - 163 BC

163 - 162 BC

162 - 161 BC

161 - 160 BC

160 - 159 BC

159 - 158 BC

158 - 157 BC

157 - 156 BC

156 - 155 BC

155 - 154 BC

154 - 153 BC

153 - 152 BC

152 - 151 BC

151 - 150 BC

150 - 148 BC

Andriscus of Corinth leads a popular uprising against Rome in the Fourth Macedonian War.

150 - 149 BC

149 - 148 BC

148 - 147 BC

148 BC

The Achaean League of Greek states is destroyed by Rome, and Greece and Macedonia are annexed to the republic, being incorporating into newly-created Roman provinces.

Elected Archons of Athens (Roman Period)
148 BC - AD 275

Rome Aquitani Tribes Canaanite States & Groups Celtic Tribes Germanic Tribes Iberian Tribes Mesopotamian States & Groups Syrian States & Groups

The popular uprising of Andriscus of Corinth which created the Fourth Macedonian War was put down by Rome. The Latin republic subsequently established a permanent residence in Greece. Understandably unhappy with this turn of events, the Achaean League of Greek states rose up against the Roman presence and was swiftly destroyed for its pains. Rome also destroyed Corinth as an object lesson and annexed Macedonia, incorporating it into the Roman province of Macedonia.

Although comparatively little is known about many of the archons, this position and the other two, polemarch (heading the city's defensive forces), and archon basileus (handling the religious duties, including ceremonial functions that formerly belonged to the king) remained in place.

147 - 146 BC

A personal name or simply the title itself?

146 BC

Following the conquest of the Achaean League of Greek states by Rome, Athens now falls fully under Latin control, although the post of archon continues to hold a certain level of authority.

Roman building work in the Agora area of Athens

146 - 145 BC

145 - 144 BC

144 - 143 BC

143 - 142 BC

142 - 141 BC

141 - 140 BC

140 - 139 BC

139 - 138 BC

138 - 137 BC

137 - 136 BC

136 - 135 BC

135 - 134 BC

134 - 133 BC

133 - 132 BC

132 - 131 BC

131 - 130 BC

130 - 129 BC

129 - 128 BC

128 - 127 BC

127 - 126 BC

126 - 125 BC

125 - 124 BC

124 - 123 BC

Died in office.

123 - 122 BC

122 - 121 BC

121 - 120 BC

120 - 119 BC

119 - 118 BC

118 - 117 BC

117 - 116 BC

116 - 115 BC

115 - 114 BC

114 - 113 BC

113 - 112 BC

112 - 111 BC

111 - 110 BC

110 - 109 BC

109 - 108 BC

Returned to office.

108 - 107 BC

107 - 106 BC

106 - 105 BC

105 - 104 BC

104 - 103 BC

103 - 102 BC

102 - 101 BC

101 - 100 BC

100 - 99 BC

99 - 98 BC

98 - 96 BC

Archon for two successive terms.

96 - 95 BC

95 - 94 BC

Returned to office.

94 - 93 BC

93 - 92 BC

92 - 91 BC

91 - 88 BC

Returned to office. Archon for three successive terms.

88 - 87 BC

During the civil war in Italy, Athens revolts against Roman rule and no archon is elected during the period in which Lucius Cornelius Sulla crushes the Greeks. Subsequent Roman civil wars damage Greece even further in this century.

87 - 86 BC

86 BC

Athens is annexed by the Roman republic. Sulla levels most of the city's buildings and fortifications, fortunately excluding many civic buildings and monuments.

86 - 85 BC

85 - 84 BC

84 - 83 BC

83 BC

Towards the end of the Roman civil war, Athens is captured again by the troops of General Lucius Cornelius Sulla.

Lucius Cornelius Sulla was the victor in Rome's first full-scale civil war (88-82 BC), after which he became dictator of the Roman republic, thereby laying out a path which others could follow in the same century

83 - 82 BC

82 - 81 BC

81 - 80 BC

80 - 78 BC

Two archons, names unknown.

78 - 77 BC

77 - 75 BC

Two archons, names unknown.

75 - 74 BC

74 - 73 BC

Name unknown.

73 - 72 BC

72 - 71 BC

Name unknown.

71 - 70 BC

70 - 69 BC

69 - 67 BC

Two archons, names unknown.

67 - 66 BC

66 - 65 BC

65 - 62 BC

Three archons, names unknown.

62 - 61 BC

61 - 60 BC

60 - 59 BC

59 - 58 BC

58 - 57 BC

57 - 56 BC

56 - 55 BC

55 - 54 BC

54 - 53 BC

53 - 52 BC

52 - 51 BC

51 - 50 BC

50 - 49 BC

49 - 48 BC

48 - 47 BC

47 - 46 BC

46 - 45 BC

45 - 44 BC

44 - 43/43-42 BC

Archon in one of these periods. The other archon is unknown.

42 - 41 BC

41 - 40 BC

40 - 39 BC

39 - 38 BC

38 - 37 BC

37 - 36 BC

36 - 35 BC

35 - 34 BC

Name unknown.

34 - 33 BC

33 - 32 BC

32 - 31 BC

31 - 30 BC

30 - 29 BC

29 - 26 BC

Three archons, names unknown.

27 BC

Caesar Augustus organises southern Greece as the province of Achaea, which includes Athens. His accession ends the period of instability and civil war within the Roman territories, finally bringing peace and prosperity to Greece.

26 - 25 BC

25 - 21 BC

Four archons, names unknown.

21 - 20 BC

20 - 19 BC

19 - 16 BC

Three archons, names unknown.

16 - 15 BC

15 - 14 BC

14 - 13 BC

13 - 12 BC

12 - 11 BC

11 - 10 BC

10 - 9 BC

Name unknown.

9 - 8 BC

8 - 7 BC

7 - 6 BC

Name unknown.

6 - 5 BC

5 - 4 BC

4 - 3 BC

3 - 2 BC

2 - 1 BC

1 BC - AD 1

AD 1 - 2

2 - 3

3 - 4

4 - 5

5 - 6

6 - 7

7 - 24

Seventeen archons, names unknown.

24 - 25

25  - 26

26 - 27

27 - 28

28 - 29

29 - 30

30 - 36

Six archons, names unknown.

36 - 37

37 - 38

38 - 39

39 - 40

40 - 45

Five archons, names unknown.

45 - 46

46 - 49

Three archons, names unknown.

49 - 50

50 - 53

Four archons, names unknown.

c.53

Hierotheos the Thesmothete (a junior archon) is reputedly the first head of the Christians of Athens. Instructed by the Apostle Paul, he is baptised and ordained by him about this year. The Roman Church has yet to be established, making this appointment an important one in the spread of the new religion.

Hierotheos the Thesmothete may have been the very first head of the early Christian population of Athens

53 - 54

54 - 55

Name unknown.

55 - 56

56 - 61

Five archons, names unknown.

61 - 62

62 - 64

Two archons, names unknown.

64 - 65

65 - 66

66 - 91

Twenty-five archons, names unknown.

91 - 92

Roman Emperor (81-96).

92 - 93

93 - 94

Name unknown.

94 - 95

95 - 96

96 - 97

97 - 98

Name unknown.

98 - 99

99 - 100

100 - 101

101 - 102

102 - 103

103 - 104

104 - 105

105 - 107

Two archons, names unknown.

107 - 108

108 - 109

Died in office.

108 - 109

Completed term of office for Julius Antiochus.

109 - 110

110 - 111

111 - 112

112 - 113

Roman Emperor (117-138).

113 - 114

114 - 115

Name unknown.

115 - 116

116 - 117

117 - 118

Name unknown.

118 - 119

119 - 126

Seven archons, names unknown.

126 - 127

127 - 128

128 - 131

Three archons, names unknown.

131 - 132

132 - 133

133 - 134

Name unknown.

134 - 135

135 - 138

Three archons, names unknown.

136

After perhaps being a philosopher, Hyginus of Athens becomes Pope.

138 - 139

139 - 140

140 - 141

141 - 142

142 - 143

143 - 144

144 - 145

145 - 146

146 - 147

147 - 148

148 - 149

149 - 150

150 - 151

151 - 152

152 - 153

153 - 154

154 - 155

155 - 156

156 - 157

157 - 158

158 - 159

159 - 160

160 - 161

161 - 162

162 - 163

163 - 164

164 - 165

165 - 166

166 - 167

167 - 168

Anarchy grips the region, probably due to the first invasion of Germanic peoples across the Danube under the leadership of the Marcomanni. They penetrate into Italy and force Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius to spend the rest of his life campaigning in the Danube region to contain the problem.

Emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius had concentrated on defining the Roman empire's borders, defending the territory they had. That would have included building watch towers along the limes in the Danube region which the Marcomanni managed to break through

168 - 169

169 - 170

The repercussions of instability in the region rumble on, with no archon being elected for this period.

170 - 171

171 - 172

Again, no archon is elected for this period, although the anarchy is finally brought to an end.

172 - 173

173 - 174

174 - 175

175 - 176

176 - 177

177 - 178

178 - 179

179 - 180

180 - 181

181 - 182

182 - 183

183 - 184

184 - 185

185 - 186

186 - 187

187 - 188

188 - 189

Roman Emperor (180-192).

189 - 190

190 - 191

191 - 192

Name unknown.

192 - 193

193 - 199

Six archons, names unknown.

199 - 200

200 - 203

Three archons, names unknown.

203 - 204

204 - 209

Five archons, names unknown.

209 - 210

210 - 212

Two archons, names unknown.

212 - 213

213 - 220

Seven archons, names unknown.

220 - 221

221 - 222

222 - 230

Eight archons, names unknown.

230 - 231

231 - 233

Two archons, names unknown.

233 - 234

234 - 235

235 - 240

Five archons, names unknown.

240 - 241

241 - 254

Thirteen archons, names unknown.

254 - 255

255 - 262

Seven archons, names unknown.

262 - 263

May also have served as Archon Basileus.

263 - 264

Name unknown.

264 - 265

Roman Emperor (253-260).

265 - 274

Nine archons, names unknown.

267 - 268

A general barbarian invasion takes place across the Roman frontier. The barbarian coalition includes Goths, Heruli, and Peucini Bastarnae, all of which form a force that sails along the Black Sea coast to Tomis in Moesia Inferior. They attack the town but are unable to take it. Sailing on, they are frustrated twice more, at Marcianopolis (Devnya in modern Bulgaria) and Thessalonica in Macedonia. Athens is sacked by the Heruli, with all its public buildings being burned down. The lower city is plundered and the Acropolis is damaged. The city is subsequently re-fortified to the north of the Acropolis, leaving some ancient areas including the Agora now outside the city walls.

Heruli warriors confronted by late Roman troops

274 - 275

275

After Titus Flavius Mondon Phlyeus no further archons are known, suggesting that the office is abolished. The possible reasons are unknown. There is no distinguishing event within the Roman empire, such as the accession of a new, powerful augustus, to tie in with this date. Athens is partially sidelined in Greece by the refounding of Byzantium as Constantinople, and the Eastern Roman empire rules the region until the fifteenth century, followed by the Turkic Ottoman empire. An independent modern Greek state is established by 1830, and Athens forms its capital city.