Far East Kingdoms

Silla (Korea)
57 BC - AD 935

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The Korea of the late classical and early medieval periods was for the most part divided into 'Three Kingdoms', although others also existed. Largely (but not entirely) contained within today's South Korea, a widespread tribal confederation emerged in the last few centuries BC. The Jin confederacy formed out of several more minor tribal confederations or primitive states.

In the second century BC this fractured into what are known as the Samhan confederacies, an umbrella term for a total of three confederacies which occupied the central and southern regions of the Korean peninsula. All three emerged during the confusion of the collapse of Wiman Choson and all three claimed to be the true successors of the Jin confederacy (according to the History of the Later Han).

Out of the Samhan confederacies, the 'Three Kingdoms' of Baekje, Gaya, and Silla emerged, although not entirely directly in most cases. Despite the fact that they replaced the preceding confederacies rather than evolving directly from each of them, the 'Samhan' term remained in use regarding them.

In fact the term was even appropriated by the later Goryeo dynasty to refer to all of Korea. The Tang Chinese frequently referred to the collective Korean kingdoms as 'Samhan'. The northern kingdom of Koguryo became a 'Samhan' kingdom too, despite being located outside the former confederacy's territory.

Silla (pronounced she-lla) emerged in or around the first century BC, initially as a collection of six villages under the title of Seorabeol. Starting off as part of the Jinhan confederacy, Silla became the longest-lasting of any of the Korean kingdoms. The modern territory which formed Silla today is part of South Korea, and even now Silla is referred to as the millennium kingdom because it lasted (officially) from 95 BC to AD 935.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Jane Portal (Matsutaro Shoriki Chair, Art of Asia, Oceania and Africa, Museum of Fine Arts Boston), from the BBC Radio 4 series, A History of the World in 100 Objects, Part 4 Korean Roof Tile - The Silk Road and Beyond (AD 400-700), broadcast on 31 December 2012, from Pacific northeast Asia in prehistory: hunter-fisher-gatherers, farmers, and sociopolitical elites, C Melvin Aikens (WSU Press, 1992), from Pre-Modern East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800, Patricia Ebrey & Anne Walthall (Cengage Learning, 2013), from A New History of Korea, Lee Ki-baik (1984, supplied by Michael Welles, but excluding Koguryo), from History Of Korea, Roger Tennant (Routledge, 1996), from Records of the Three Kingdoms, Chen Shou (third century text which covers the period AD 184-220 and which combines individual histories of China's 'Three Kingdoms'), from History of the Later Han, Fan Ye (fifth century compilation of older texts which covers the history of the Later Han dynasty of China), and from External Links: Ancient History Encyclopaedia, and New World Encyclopaedia, and Academic Kids Encyclopaedia, and History of Manchuria, and Kings of Korea (in Korean), and Korea Information - History (Korean Cultural Center NY), and Enacademic.)

57 BC - AD 4

Founder figure for Silla. Ruled Seorabeol.

57 BC

Bak Hyeokgeose (Bak, Pak, or Park) is the progenitor of all of Korea's 'Park' clans. Park remains a common family name in today's South Korea. His title is kosogun (in older twentieth century works) or geoseogan, is used to refer to a king in the Jinhan confederacy of which his small state is part.

The fall of Wiman Choson spawned the state of Buyeo which proved to be the founding point for Dongbuyeo, Galsa Buyeo, and Koguryo (possibly to be identified with Jolbon Buyeo), which would unify the whole of northern Korea and the Korean territories in today's Manchuria (click or tap on map to view full sized)

The legend regarding his founding of Silla states that he is born of an egg (a common tool in the legendary founding of Korea's southern kingdoms). It seems that he is born into one of six villages which consists of refugees from Koguryo.

He is adopted by Chief Sobeolgong of the village of Goheo and, once he has grown, the chiefs of all six villages elect him their king, with the early polity being known as Seorabeol.

AD 4 - 24

Son. 'Chachaung' is a title, possibly meaning 'shaman'.

AD 12

The state of Koguryo revolts against regional Chinese domination during the early days of the Xin dynasty. These Koreans are not the only ones to spot the fact that a relatively weak emperor now rules the Chinese empire to their west. The early Sillans also twice repel Chinese intrusions in this period.

23 - 36

Emperor Wang Mang faces a rebellion in China by clan members of the former ruling Han. Despite the emperor's superior number of troops, the rebels manage to breach the walls and the usurper emperor dies soon after. It takes another thirteen years before Han imperial descendant Liu Xiu can fully reunite the country as Emperor Kuang-wu Ti of the Late Han dynasty.

The map of China remained largely the same as it had been at the end of the Early Han period, with their conquests in northern Vietnam enduring and control of the north-western corridor towards Gaochang being expanded only a little (click or tap on map to view full sized)

24 - 57

Son. First of the rulers to use isageum ('king').

24

It is Yuri who converts the six clans of the kingdom - for each of the six villages - into six administrative divisions. The kingdom faces raids and external pressure from the remnants of Chinese dominance in Korea, and from Baekje and the Mahan, and then from the rising Gaya confederacy.

57 - 80

Uncle-in-law and chosen successor. Japanese?

63 - 64

The young city state of Baekje is constantly expanding its network of fortresses, partially to increase its territory but also as part of an ongoing process to ward off attacks by tribal barbarians from the north.

Having established the fortress of Nangjagok in AD 63, requests are sent to the equally young state of Silla to arrange a meeting. When Silla ignores the requests, Baekje launches the first attack against a now-hostile opponent. Its forces are repelled. Further attacks over the years see border fortresses frequently swapping hands.

80 - 112

Son of Yuri. Dominated Gaya.

91

Dramatic changes in the superiority of the northern barbarians on Chinese borders is now taking place. Having been chased out of the Tarim Basin in AD 73, the Xiongnu are forced to flee into the Ili river valley region in this year, close to the gateway into Central Asia.

Late Han China continued to pressure the Korean states, especially to the north of the Korean peninsula, with Buyo seemingly accepting Han vassal status in AD 49 (click or tap on map to view full sized)

The nomadic Xianbei rapidly expand to fill the void between Buyeo in the northern reaches of Korea to the River Ili, with the latter region being dominated by the Wusun.

102 - 108

Pasa secures control of rival city states in the form of Apdok (modern Gyeongsan), Eumjipbeol (now northern Gyeongju), and Siljikgok (now Samcheok). Six years later, in AD 108, he gains control of the states of Biji (now Hapcheon), Chopal (now Changwon), and Dabeol (now Pohang).

112 - 134

Son. Established relations with Wa. Died without an heir.

134 - 154

Son (or grandson) of Yuri?

145

Ajan Gilseon is discovered to be plotting against Ilseong. He flees to Baekje which refuses to return him. A general war is the result, for the first time in a generation. The Sillan soldiers eventually withdraw due to a lack of supplies.

154 - 184

Son. Dethroned in a civil war? Last of the Pak kings.

174 -184

Records cease for the kingdom in this period. The fate of Adalla is unknown, but his successor is not a member of the Pak clan. Instead it is the first ruler in a line from the Seok clan.

Jimmu Tenno, founder figure of modern Japan, as seen in a coloured wood engraving by Nakai Tokujiro in 1908 - early Japan and the kingdom of Baekje retained close links

Adalla has been reported as expanding the kingdom quite considerably during his reign, but this could instead be the early signs of a civil war between the two clans. One of Beolhyu's earliest acts as king is to conquer the chiefdom (state) of Somun-guk (in what is now Uiseong).

184 - 196

First ruler from the Seok clan. Descended from Talhae?

196 - 230

Grandson.

230 - 247

Brother of Naehae's queen.

247 - 261

Brother.

c.250

Silla by now is an established state in its own right, having also conquered the small state of Gammun-guk (near today's Gimcheon) in 231, but it probably still stands only as the strongest city state within the Jinhan confederacy.

That changes as the third century draws to an end and Silla becomes increasingly powerful and independent, and increasingly dominant over the remaining Jinhan city states.

In AD 220 the Late Han Chinese empire was officially transferred to the Wei or Cao Wei dynasty, and their opponents simply had to respond (click or tap on map to view full sized)

262 - 284

Brother of Jobun's queen. First of the Kim clan kings.

284 - 298

Son of Jobun.

c.290s

Records for this period are limited, but several invasions are recorded as having been launched from the Wa state (Japan at the crossover point between the Yayoi period and the Kofun period) This would be during the reign of legendary Japanese emperor Keikō, but no historical ruling structure is known for the Japanese islands at this time.

298 - 310

Grandson or great-grandson of Jobun. Renamed state?

310 - 356

A Seok son of General Uri, and grandson of Naehae.

313

The Western Jin are finally driven out of Korean territory when the last of their commanderies, that of Liaodong, falls to Koguryo. The kingdom now rules the entirety of northern Korea, opposed only in the far south by Baekje and Silla. In this same year Silla concludes a marriage alliance with the Wa kingdom (Japan).

As Emperor Wu Ti, Sima Yan had been able to complete his father's work and reunite China under one ruler, but his Western Jin descendants could not find unity amongst themselves and instead started a long-running civil war

346 - 347

The alliance with the Wa kingdom (Japan, presumably under the legendary emperor, Chūai) breaks down in 346. According to early myth Chūai is ordered by a kami (a spirit) to invade Korea. He refuses and the kami later engineers his death during a battle (on Japanese soil).

His successor in 347 is Ōjin who apparently is not shy of invading Silla. The attempt is reputedly a major one, with the Sillan capital of Seorabeol (now Gyeongju) being besieged. The invasion is repulsed with heavy casualties and further invasions of Silla follow.

356 - 402

Nephew of Michu. First ruler to use maripgan ('king').

369

The former city state member of the Mahan confederacy, Baekje, now conquers the last remnants of the confederacy. Much of its former territory in northern and central South Korea is absorbed by the kingdom.

391 - 491

It is Gwanggaeto of Koguryo and his immediate successor, Jangsu, who push their kingdom's boundaries to their greatest extent. It encompasses the entire northern half of the Korean peninsula and extends into what is now China. Wedged into the southernmost third of modern Korea's territory are the three subjugated states of Baekje, Gaya, and Silla.

By the early fourth century AD China had fractured once again, with the north splintering into the 'Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians' and the Jin imperial dynasty having retreated south of the River Huai to retain their claim of imperial superiority in the form of the Eastern Jin (click or tap on map to view full sized)

402 - 417

Great-nephew of Michu. Tried to kill Nulji, but tables turned.

417 - 458

Son of Naemul.

458 - 479

Son.

475

King Gaero of Baekje has been testing his strength against Koguryo, launching a surprise assault on the city of Cheongmongnyeon in 469. Now Koguryo strikes back. King Jangsu launches an attack which overruns Baekje's defences in just seven days.

The capital is captured and Gaero is captured and then murdered. Silla sends an army of ten thousand men but it arrives too late to affect the outcome. The support does, however, cement the alliance between the two southern states.

Baekje and Yamato Japan retained close links, although at this stage Japan's history was still clouded in legend so that the tomb of Emperor Nintoku in Sakai, Osaka, cannot specifically be ascribed to him, and the emperor himself is regarded as one of the legendary emperors

479 - 500

Relationship unknown. End of dynasty.

500 - 514

Great-grandson of Naemul. First to use wang ('king').

503

Possibly to dispel any confusion about its rising status as a regional power, the Jinhan city state of Saro (Saro-guk or Seorabeol) now officially adopts the name 'Silla', although this act is also dated to 308 under Girim.

The other Jinhan states around this time are Bulsa (now the city of Changnyeong), Geun-gi (now either Pohang or Cheongdo), Gijeo (now Andong), Gunmi (now Sacheon), Horo (now Sangju), Juseon (now Gyeongsan), Mayeon (now Miryang), Nanmirimidong or Mirimidong (also now Miryang), U-yu (now either Cheongdo or Yeongdeok), Yeodam (now Gunwi), and Yeomhae (now Ulsan).

514 - 540

Relationship unknown. Accepted Buddhism.

540 - 576

Nephew or grandson. Greatly expanded the state.

551 - 552

The formation of the Göktürk khaganate, to the immediate north-west of Korean territories, on the Mongolian steppe, seems not to impact upon affairs in the Silla kingdom or upon the Koguryo state to the north. Instead, the Göktürk empire focuses its attention primarily on Sui China and on expanding across the steppeland towards Europe.

As was often the case with Central Asian states which had been created by horse-borne warriors on the sweeping steppeland, the Göktürk khaganate swiftly incorporated a vast stretch of territory in its westwards expansion, whilst being hemmed in by the powerful Chinese dynasties to the south-east and Siberia's uninviting tundra to the north (click or tap on map to view full sized)

However, Koguryo's increasingly bitter internal feuding over the succession allows the Tuchueh nomads to capture several northern border strongholds. Both Baekje and Silla have also spotted an opportunity to strike back, launching attacks in 551.

Baekje goes first, attacking forts in the fertile and strategically important Han river valley in central Korea. Having exhausted its efforts for little reward, its supposed ally, Silla, now 'offers' assistance.

Silla defeats the strained fortress defenders and captures the entire river valley for itself. Seong of Baekje, incensed at this betrayal, gets himself killed in battle against Silla in 553. This gives Silla direct access to the Yellow Sea and trade with China which will prove vital to its development.

562

The kingdom conquers the remaining cities of the Gaya confederacy. The primary reason is the support given by the Gaya cities to Baekje in the recent war between the two major kingdoms.

The royal tombs of Gaya are today on display under the care of Daegaya Museum in South Korea (External Link: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International)

576 - 579

Son. Suffered losses to Baekje. Confined and died.

579 - 632

Grandson of Jinheung.

632 - 647

Dau. Bore the title yeowang ('queen'). Faced down rebellion.

647 - 654

Cousin. Bore the title yeowang ('queen').

654 - 661

Grandson of Jinji.

660 - 663

The Tang Chinese invade and conquer the kingdom of Baekje as part of their efforts to weaken Koguryo. Empress Saimei of Baekje's close ally and trading partner in Asuka Japan fully intends to launch an invasion of Silla, which is assisting the Chinese.

An army which is made up of Japanese and Baekje troops is assembled and departs soon after the unexpected death of the aging empress. Defeat in battle in 663 forces the Japanese to abandon the attempt and Baekje is no more.

The Tang assault on Koguryo's borders between 645-647 looked set to succeed until a siege of the fortress of Ansi City turned into a heroic defence, as recreated in this South Korean film, The Great Battle (2019) - it delayed the kingdom's fall by a generation

661 - 668

Son. Descended from Suro of Gaya. Formed Unified Silla.

667 - 676

China, with assistance from Silla, conquers Koguryo in 667-668, effectively giving it domination over the whole of the Korean peninsula. Koreans still rule locally though, with Munmu of Silla now able to claim that he governs an expanded and Unified Silla, with much of the state's wealth and political strength being located in the south of the peninsula.

Unified Silla (Korea)
AD 668 - 889

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Founded as a united collection of villages in the mid-first century BC, the small Korean state of Seorabeol (early Silla) quickly solidified its position. It was part of the Jinhan confederacy at first, but it gradually subjugated the city states of the confederacy until it ruled the south-eastern corner of the Korean peninsula.

The capital was at Kyongju, famous for its wide streets which were laid out in a grid. All the houses, palaces and (later) Buddhist temples had tiled roofs, a sign of wealth and sophistication. Lesser houses would still have had thatched roofs but these were highly unlikely to be found in the more affluent central areas of the city (thatch being a constant fire hazard in any ancient city, of course).

Tiled houses stood in long rows, once decorated roof tiles had started to become widespread - from around AD 688, when this small Korean kingdom, with support from Tang China, conquered the last of the other Korean kingdoms and gained territory which stretched somewhat to the north of modern Pyongyang.

Silla never gained the far northern lands which had been the formation zone of early Korean culture, but it did gain control of the entire Korean peninsula. The now-unified kingdom of Silla retained Korea's wealth and political strength in the south.

All of the aristocrats from the defeated areas of Korea - Koguryo and Baekje - were brought to Kyongju and no doubt wanted to create their own houses and estates in which they could preserve the lifestyle to which they had become accustomed. Korean political unity ushered in an age of prosperity and cultural unity in the peninsula, with the rich and famous no doubt emulating Chinese symbols of wealth and power. Now Silla had to balance the requirements of maintaining the unified kingdom against Chinese ambitions to control Korea directly.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Jane Portal (Matsutaro Shoriki Chair, Art of Asia, Oceania and Africa, Museum of Fine Arts Boston), from the BBC Radio 4 series, A History of the World in 100 Objects, Part 4 Korean Roof Tile - The Silk Road and Beyond (AD 400-700), broadcast on 31 December 2012, from Pacific northeast Asia in prehistory: hunter-fisher-gatherers, farmers, and sociopolitical elites, C Melvin Aikens (WSU Press, 1992), from Pre-Modern East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800, Patricia Ebrey & Anne Walthall (Cengage Learning, 2013), from A New History of Korea, Lee Ki-baik (1984, supplied by Michael Welles, but excluding Koguryo), from History Of Korea, Roger Tennant (Routledge, 1996), and from External Links: Ancient History Encyclopaedia, and New World Encyclopaedia, and Academic Kids Encyclopaedia, and History of Manchuria, and Kings of Korea (in Korean), and Korea Information - History (Korean Cultural Center NY), and Enacademic.)

668 - 681

Ruler of Silla (from 661) who created Unified Silla.

668

With Koguryo's defences having crumbled and Tang China and Silla having grabbed the remnants, the conflicts do not end. Chinese occupation of the north is resisted, with the result that forced migrations are imposed on large numbers of people, shifting them to regions around the Yangtze in China. Silla moves as much as possible of Koguryo's wealth and nobility south into its own core territory.

The Tang dynasty prospered greatly from the flow of goods which came in via the burgeoning Silk Road, and some of that prosperity would have reached conquered and occupied Koguryo, despite the unwillingness of the former kingdom's people to be dominated

Tang control of the north is temporarily perpetuated through its 'Protectorate General to Pacify the East', first under a Tang general, and then under Bojang, the final, puppet, king of Koguryo. He is removed in 681 for fomenting rebellion, however. The protectorate comes under consist attack by Korean elements within its terrotory.

670

Eager to break away from Tang influence, Munmu agrees to support and ally with the refounded Koguryo. He grants Prince Anseung a pocket territory close to today's Iksan City, near the former Baekje capital of Buyeo. This is known as the kingdom of Bodeok. His plan is that Anseung will be his shield against an expected direct Tang attack from the east.

675 - 677

The Tang attack Silla, defeating its forces in battle. Munmu sends a notice of apology to the Chinese imperial court, which buys him some relief. Almost immediately the Tang are diverted into moving troops to the west to deal with a threat from Tibet, and Silla is able to go back on the offensive.

Songtsen Gampo, king of all of Tibet, led a force of mighty horsemen which generally outmatched his Tang Chinese opponents in the seventh century AD

The Tang, stretched on two fronts, are forced to relocate the protectorate's capital in 676, moving it away from Silla to the city of Liaoyang. It is moved again in 677.

681 - 692

Son. Strengthened central authority.

681 - 683

Sinmun has to put down the serious 'Kim Heumdol Revolt' while still mourning the death of his father. The eponymous leader of the revolt is Sinmun's own father-in-law. Some senior military figures may also be involved, but either way it gives Sinmun the opportunity to cleanse the royal court of some of its more awkward figures.

Several other such plots are also uncovered over the next two years, and all are dealt with. Unfortunately, one of these involves General Daemun, a relative of Prince Anseung of Bodeok. The result is that the now-mistrusted Anseung is forced to relocate to Silla's capital while the kingdom of Bodeok is terminated.

692 - 702

Son. Died without producing a male heir.

698

The kingdom of Barhae is declared by its founder, Dae Joyeong. Its location encompasses much of central and northern Koguryo but it stretches far to the north to incorporate just about all of the territories of Korean cultural development and the semi-legendary state of Old Choson. Now ruled entirely by two major states, along with intrusive Chinese domination, Korea is a major player in trade at the far end of the Silk Road.

Marco Polo's journey into China along the Silk Road made use of a network of east-west trade routes which had been developed since the time of Greek control of Bactria

702 - 737

Brother. Given the title daewang ('great king').

721

Disturbed by the resurgence of the Korean north under the rulers of Barhae, Seongdeok builds a great wall on the northern border of Silla. Elements of the wall can still be seen in today's South Hamgyǒng Province in North Korea. Continuing raids by Japanese pirates also result in the building of a large fortress near the Sillan capital.

737 - 742

Son. Reigned during a golden age of peace.

742 - 765

Brother. A great builder.

756

This is the point at which the 'Protectorate General to Pacify the East', largely covering the territory of Koguryo which remains out of Silla's hands, is abandoned. Formal abandonment probably takes place in 761, after the Tang have recovered from the brief rebellion by General An Lushan and his Greater Yen dynasty.

765 - 780

Son. Acceded aged 8. Effeminate & dissolute. Killed.

780

On the throne from the age of eight, Hyegong has not become the guiding, constructive ruler that his immediate predecessors have been. His dissolute lifestyle and overtly effeminate presentation dismays his subjects and encourages rebellion.

The fourth of these sees rebels storm the palace and kill both Hyegong and his queen. With no offspring to succeed him, the crown goes to a distant relative who traces his descent from the fourth century Sillan king, Naemul.

The royal tomb of King Naemul, progenitor of so many of Silla's later rulers, is a large mound of 2.2 metres in diameter and 5.3 metres height, located on the northern hill of Gyeongju's Confucian school

780 - 785

Distant relative. Died with no heir.

785 - 798

A relative, details not known.

798 - 800

Grandson. Ruled for 19 months. Died unexpectedly.

800 - 809

Son. Murdered during coup by Heondeok.

809 - 826

Uncle. Usurper.

826 - 836

Brother. m dau of Soseong. Died with no heir.

836 - 838

Grandson of Weonseong. Committed suicide after a rebellion.

838

Despite the kingdom enjoying a long period of peace and prosperity, the royal succession has faced a series of problems. Deaths without heirs, court manoeuvring, and occasional rebellions have ensured an uneven occupation of the throne.

Now Huigang is driven to suicide by such a rebellion. Its instigator, a relative who takes the throne as King Minae, is himself murdered by solders after about a year in command.

Numerous structures which can be attributed to Silla still survive in South Korea, such as this one which is known as Seokguram Grotto

838 - 839

Great-grandson of Weonseong. Rebellion leader. Killed.

839

Cousin to Heungdeok. Killed by illness after 3 months.

839 - 857

Son. Faced several rebellions.

857 - 861

Uncle. Brother of Sinmu. Died childless.

861 - 875

Grandson of Huigang.

875 - 886

Son. Died without a legitimate male heir (but see 897).

886 - 887

Son of Gyeongmun.

887 - 889

With the death of Jeonggang, Silla's decaying stability now heads on a downward spiral towards ultimate decay. The kingdom has been wracked by multiple minor rebellions, succession crises, and court intrigues.

The accession of the near-powerless Queen Jinseong, sister of Jeonggang, does little to arrest the decline, unlike the highly successful two former queens of Silla. With the end of the 'Unified Silla' period, the 'Later Silla' period begins.

Later Silla / Later Three Kingdoms (Korea)
AD 889 - 935

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The small Korean state of Seorabeol (early Silla) quickly solidified its position to become a major kingdom in the southern Korean peninsula. In AD 688 this small kingdom, with support from Tang China, conquered the last of the other surviving Korean kingdoms and gained territory which stretched somewhat to the north of modern Pyongyang.

It never gained the far northern lands which had been the formation zone of early Korean culture, but its conquests were enough to unify all remaining Korean lands which were not under Tang Chinese control. So began the 'Unified Silla' period.

The eighth century was largely a golden age for Silla. Building projects and city expansion abounded. Warfare was reduced once China had largely abandoned its Korean holdings due to internal problems, and trade and wealth brought even more riches to the state.

Problems appeared in 780, when the uninspiring King Hyegong suffered a series of rebellions, the last of which saw him killed in the royal palace. After that the throne never seemed to be entirely secure, and the succession never entirely certain. The accession of Queen Jinseong in 887 saw a collapse of public order, with military conscription failing and taxes not being collected.

Yang Gil headed up a rebel force in Silla, with such groups not being at all unusual by this time. His leading general was Gung Ye, reputedly a son of either Heonan or Gyeongmun. He increased his own power to the level that he was able to break away and found his own state in the central Korean peninsula after 898, known to historians as Hugoguryeo.

In 892 another breakaway state had already been formed by the name of Hubaekje, under the command of Gyeon Hwon. This was essentially a recreation of the former Baekje kingdom, thereby splitting Unified Silla into the 'Later Three Kingdoms'.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Jane Portal (Matsutaro Shoriki Chair, Art of Asia, Oceania and Africa, Museum of Fine Arts Boston), from the BBC Radio 4 series, A History of the World in 100 Objects, Part 4 Korean Roof Tile - The Silk Road and Beyond (AD 400-700), broadcast on 31 December 2012, from Pacific northeast Asia in prehistory: hunter-fisher-gatherers, farmers, and sociopolitical elites, C Melvin Aikens (WSU Press, 1992), from Pre-Modern East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800, Patricia Ebrey & Anne Walthall (Cengage Learning, 2013), from A New History of Korea, Lee Ki-baik (1984, supplied by Michael Welles, but excluding Koguryo), from History Of Korea, Roger Tennant (Routledge, 1996), and from External Links: Ancient History Encyclopaedia, and New World Encyclopaedia, and Academic Kids Encyclopaedia, and History of Manchuria, and Kings of Korea (in Korean), and Korea Information - History (Korean Cultural Center NY), and Enacademic.)

887 - 897

Sister of Jeonggang. Entitled yeowang ('queen'). Abdicated.

889

Following a year of famine the kingdom's corrupt, exploitative government raises taxes by a sizable amount. The act dooms the declining kingdom, immediately sparking several revolts. Those revolts keep the central government busy while local members of the nobility effectively rule unopposed in the regions. Yang Gil becomes one of the most powerful of the rebel leaders. Another is Gyeon Hwon.

The Vairocana Buddha from ninth century Unified Silla was created after the state had passed the apogee of its wealth and power but before the true decline had irreversibly set in (External Link: Attribution-ShareAlike 2.0 Generic (CC BY-SA 2.0)))

892

Yang Gil is joined by Gung Ye, who quickly becomes his leading general. Gung Ye is reputedly a son of either King Heonan or King Gyeongmun, although he may instead simply be a prince of Silla who has a heritage which is connected to one of the other, former Korean kingdoms.

In the same year Gyeon Hwon takes control of the south-west section of the Korean peninsula, most of the territory having previously been part of the kingdom of Baekje. Gyeon's newly-founded state is named Hubaekje ('Later Baekje'). Silla is permanently weakened by the loss of territory and resources.

897 - 912

Illegitimate son of Heongang. Lost territory. Died with no heir.

898 - 901

Having been buoyed by several nobles submitting directly to him rather than his master, Gung Ye now turns against Yang Gil. He rapidly conquers all opposition to his will in the centre of the Korean peninsula and, in 901, declares the founding of his own kingdom which he names Goryeo (or Hugoguryeo to later historians). Silla is now in terminal decline.

905 - 907

Silla loses territory to the to the north-east of Jungnyeong pass in central Korea in 905. Two years later a total of ten fortresses to the south of Ilseon are seized by Hubaekje. Hyogong turns to drink and further neglects an already-neglected state. His successor has to fight off incessant attacks by Hugoguryeo and Hubaekje.

Later Silla's throne never seemed to be entirely secure, the succession never entirely certain, and the accession of Queen Jinseong in 887 saw a collapse of public order (click or tap on map to view full sized)

912 - 917

Son-in-law of Heongang. Constantly under attack.

917 - 924

Son. Lost further territory.

918

Becoming increasingly paranoid in his later years, Gung Ye of Hugoguryeo (which has already been renamed as Taebong) has already executed one of his wives and two of his three sons (in 915).

Now he is overthrown by four of his generals, worried that the king will destroy his own newly-founded state. He is forced to flee the capital and is soon killed, perhaps having been mistaken for a robber.

The generals replace Gung Ye with Wang Geon, the kingdom's prime minister and an aristocratic descendent of a Koguryo clan. The kingdom itself, Taebong, is essentially replaced by a new structure and a new dynasty, the Goryeo dynasty, which relocates in 919 back to Gaegyeong.

920

In a union borne of practical need, Gyeongmyeong joins with Taejo Wang Geon of Goryeo to ward off an attack by Hubaekje. Unfortunately, many of Gyeongmyeong's border commanders subsequently align themselves with Goryeo, further weakening Silla's position.

924 - 927

Brother. Committed suicide.

927

The army of Hubaekje sacks Silla's capital at Gyeongju. Gyeongae is found enjoying a party at the lavish Poseokjeong pavilion near Namsan in Gyeongju. Rather than surrender he commits suicide. Gyeon Hwon places Gyeongsun on Silla's throne and returns to his own kingdom.

Gyeon Hwon of Hubaekje made perhaps his greatest blunder by setting up a new king of Silla instead of annexing the territory - just eight years later it would be handed over without a fight to this man, Taejo Wang Geon of Goryeo

927 - 935

Son of Hyogong. Raised by Hubaekje. Abdicated.

935

Silla's surviving territory is a shadow of its former greatness. Gyeongsun abdicates in favour of Taejo Wang Geon, king of Goryeo. Probably to sweeten the deal, Taejo's daughter, Princess Nangrang, marries Gyeongsun and he gains the position of sasim-gwan, the first such holder in Goryeo's new system. Gyeongsun dies in 978, while Silla is fully absorbed into Goryeo.